Saturday, May 15, 2010

Ideal State

This was the final project for a philosophy class I took which covered The Republic. The teacher wanted us to lay out our ideal society in some form other than a report so mine is a fake anthropologist's description of a perfect society which he recently encountered.

Throughout my long career as an anthropologist I have traveled the globe in order to see the world from as many cultural perspectives as possible. All this time I have tried to remain unbiased and scholarly when entering in to a new culture, but after my decade-long excursion to the island kingdom of Eumetis I can accurately declare that there exists a society which is superior to all others. As a cultural anthropologist with over 40 years' worth of field experience, I tell you there is no other place on Earth which breeds the values of freedom and intellectualism equal to Eumetis.
The underlying foundation on which this utopia of intellect was devised is the principle that proper education and upbringing is the key to unlocking the potential of future generations. With this goal in mind, Eumetis's legendary founder Tate set out to devise an education system that would allow children to critically analyze and interpret the events of their daily lives, making them unknowingly add to their own educations with every passing thought. Eumetis's education system starts teaching children at the age of four with lesson plans similar to those of private schools in the United States or Britain, but also includes a heavy emphasis on music appreciation and performance. At the age of six the children continue their educations, but with an added emphasis on physical art and reading and writing skills. At this age children are taught to read with allegories which promote learning and free thought as well as the basic moral principles which parents are indebted to teach to children at home.
Moral values are taught to the children both at home and in early schooling with these allegories, and every child must pass a test of situations in which morals are examined (sort of like a Choose-Your-Own Allegory) in order to complete their basic education. Children who do not pass this test are psychologically examined and asked why they responded as they did. The psychologist may then pass the child upon completing the evaluations, or send the child to be re-educated in moral values and made to re-take the test.
One allegory that is children learn when learning to read is about a city that thought it was so smart, that they kicked out all the craftsmen and laborers. The citizens of this imaginary city are industrious and invent many new and wonderful things, but they quickly run out of food and clothes. When winter comes around, they have nobody to build the efficient new power plants they designed, and nobody to run the old ones which were at least satisfactory enough to provide light and heat. The moral of this story is that all cities are built from the ground up, and when the workers on the bottom are removed, those on the top will fall with them.
Another allegory that is taught at the same age teaches them not to cheat or take credit for another's work. The story is about a child who completes his education by copying the work of others and eventually earns a well-respected position in the field of nuclear physics with his colleague who was unknowingly cheated off of. Once day when his colleague is out, a major meltdown occurs and the cheater is unable to do anything to stop it, causing the deaths of thousands of people. The moral of this story is that every position comes with responsibility, and it is dangerous to everyone for an individual to have responsibilities for which they are not qualified.
At the age of seven the Eumetis educational system begins to differ from those of “civilized” societies. Basic math is introduced to the children and a heavy emphasis is placed on reading and writing skills both in school and at home, culminating in the a majority children's ability to read at an advanced level by the end of the year. At eight years old children are taught critical analysis and interpretation of literature and strongly encouraged to view the music and art they have learned until then with the same techniques. Throughout the whole year of which a child is nine, he will learn very little of what is considered practical knowledge. Instead he will learn to question all the knowledge he has and will learn through the use of logic and rationality, in addition to rhetoric so he can better communicate. By the age of ten, Eumetian children are able to reason and debate rationally better than the majority of American college students.
From the age of 10 until 16, education of music, art, and literature decreases, that of critical analysis and logic remain constant, and more and more emphasis is placed on math, sciences, geometry, geography, and physics each year. At 16 children must pass both a standardized education test, and perform satisfactory on a ethics exam to graduate. Upon graduation children are free to decide whether they will continue their formal education in specific areas, or take up a trade as a profession in order to benefit the community. While heavy emphasis is placed on education and intellect in all of Eumetian society, many children who enjoy using their hands for art and music in school become fine craftsmen, able to turn even the simplest of commodities in to art. Those that choose to be craftsmen train for an additional four to ten years under masters of the craft before they are considered true craftsmen. At this point they are accepted in to the guild of their chosen profession and given the same social status as members of academic guilds.
Those that chose to continue their formal education find themselves introduced to the world's greatest community of scholars and teachers. Until the age of 20 they undergo general academic training in a wide variety of fields in order to determine which path to follow. In some cases, especially gifted individuals may be asked by a guild to study mainly in their field of expertise, and the four year period is lessened. Once a particular field is chosen, individuals study in this field an additional five to 20 years depending on their level of intelligence and educational goals. After this time they are considered official members of an academic guild. In Eumetian society a member of a guild is considered an expert in their field and holds high social status. One step above guild members, however, are the masters of the guild whose job it is to manage the affairs of the entire guild and represent them in the senate. These masters are generally very experience in their trade since they have practiced it so long. They take on the responsibilities of the guild in addition to their regular duties as a practitioner of the skill. Each guild is entitled to make its own laws regarding the election of guild masters, but many appoint masters or hold elections within the guild.
One step on the social ladder above guild masters are those that no longer practice their profession, but teach it to the apprentices. These very experienced teachers are relieved of the responsibilities of practicing their craft so that they may devote all of their time to their students' education. Teachers are given such high status because they pass on not only the standard practices of the profession, but also first-hand accounts of real world experiences. Teachers have very little actual power in the Eumetian society, but they are highly respected for passing on their knowledge to the next generation.
One unusual aspect of society which keeps everyone productive is the lower social status that entertainer have compared to craftsmen and laborers. Musicians, actors, writers, artists, and prostitutes (which are legal but not in very high demand) all have their own guilds and are represented in the senate, but they have less social status than those of equal standing in other guilds because they do not feed any necessary aspect of the society, but rather its appetites. Masters of entertainment are considered on the same level as regular members of labor or professional guilds, and teachers of entertainment are equal to masters of other guilds. This does not mean, however, that entertainers are not appreciated or in low demand in Eumetis. During my excursion to the island I was fortunate enough to witness and help coordinate Eumetis's first ever cultural celebration, during which original representations of cultural art, music, and literature was displayed and the Guild of Culinary Delights made over 6,000 different dishes from around the world. The festival was such a success that it was extended for a full week instead of its planned 3 days, and morale and work ethic of the entire society was greatly increased for weeks after.
The Eumetian senate is possibly the most fascinating demonstration of politics that exists. Senate is held once a month to decide how best to spend the taxes and occasionally, when knew knowledge is discovered, discusses the creation of a new guild. Each guild chooses two Masters to represent them in the senate, which is often a massive debate between multiple groups of guilds. Each guild is allowed to make a proposal for how money should be spent, and since all are trained in rhetoric and rational thought at a young age, these debates never devolve to name-calling or petty arguments but remain focused on the important issues. Senate also lasts multiple days and in such cases a board of Judicators from the Guild of Seekers for Truth and Penitence volunteers to mediate the debate from an unbiased perspective.
The Guild of Seekers for Truth and Penitence are the entire criminal justice system of Eumetis. The penitentiary system of Eumetis is one devoted to reform, rather than retribution., giving them practically no repeat offenders. Offenders are made to see the psychological or physical pain their actions have caused their victims and their friends and families. They are made to attend both personal psychologists and group therapy with those who were harmed by their crimes. If an offender commits more than one violent crime, he is marooned on a neighboring island and given no provisions. Offenders who commit three non-violent crimes are brought to a nearby society and left there to live however they chose so long as they do not return to Eumetis. These people generally mix with the more advanced modern societies and perform very capably.
The Guild of Seekers for Truth and Penitence are responsible for processing the trial of those accused of crimes and for taking care of those convicted. After being apprehended by the guards, criminals are given over to the Seekers for holding, and two Seekers are randomly selected to compose a case for, and three against the accused, including compiling a list of witnesses. Before this, other Seekers who specialize in the collection and analysis of crime scene data compile factual reports on materials found on the crime scene, which can be used by the Seekers representing the defense and the prosecution. The prosecution opens the court when all the evidence has been compiled, and argues to a panel of seven randomly selected Judicators, who then have blind vote to determine the outcome. If the defendant has been found guilty, he is given back over to the Seekers who then schedule his reformation process or perform his exiling.
Personal life in Eumetian society is vastly different from any other that exists on Earth. Upon reaching adulthood and graduating “basic” education at the age of 16, each Eumetian is required to donate a sample of their sperm or eggs to the state's genetics department. At this time each citizen who completes the basic education is granted basic rights which protect their freedom of expression and rights which concern fair trials. After this they are free to engage in whatever personal relationships they chose, whether for pleasure or reproductive purposes. This includes homosexuality and mutli-partner relationships, which can become legally binding marriages. All sexual relationships, heterosexual,homosexual, and multiparty most be consented to by all involved and all must have reached adulthood. Marriages and divorces are another minor duty of the Judicators, and therefore marriage is an institution solely of the state which may pass no judgment on marriage save that a party involved does not agree.
A family would consist of groups of people bound by marriage and their offspring. Partners could have as many children as they want so long as they can provide for those children. Adoption is strongly suggested and is one of the reasons donations of sperm and eggs are required. Barring unforeseen accidents, there are no children without parents, so when partners decide to adopt they may ask to use their own donated samples, or specify a set of skills which they would like their child to have. Samples are then chosen, with the donors' permission, to genetically predetermine the child to the specified skill. Once the donors give their permission for the samples to be used, they have no say in any aspect of how the child is raised, but they may receive information about important events in the child's life (career choice, marriages, etc) if they wish.
Partners who divorce must make arrangements for their children upon divorcing and are still required to provide for these children until they reach adulthood. These children may be raised by any parent involved in the marriage (arrangements made upon divorce) or if the child has reached a significant level of training and shows proficiency in a particular set of skills, a guild may ask to adopt the child and raise it as a guild member of that particular trade if the parents agree. Children raised by a guild are not required to choose that trade as their profession, but are strongly encouraged to and given slightly higher social status among the members of the guild for being raised among them. The guild may withdraw their invitation if the child does not prove to be talented in their trade, but must still raise the child until it comes of age.
Genetic samples are also used by the state to maintain a base of genetically superior laborers. The Guild of Genetic Craftsmanship which handles all donated samples of sperm and eggs, breeds children based on a family history of physical strength and dexterity, work ethic, and minimal criminal activity. Laborers are educated in the same way as regular children until they reach adulthood at 16. At this time they are taken out of classes and instructed in various fields of labor including mining, farming, animal training, grounds keeping, guardian training, and other basic aspects which society requires. Guild laborers are given the same social status as craftsmen or academic guild members, and can even be revered as heroes. Mos notably among these is Luz Rouh, the Eumetian miner who lead a successful expedition in to a volcano on a neighboring island to create forge within the crater where metal can be worked in lava by master blacksmiths. Since the making of the the Vulcan Forge, Eumetis has seen a dramatic rise in its labor force as many non-genetically altered children chose to provide labor rather than continue their educations.
Since a high regard is placed on the collection and creation of knowledge in Eumetis, many members of certain guilds chose to travel the world and collect and add to knowledge pertaining to their field in other societies. In doing this they can gain understanding of things that they would otherwise never have learned on remote Eumetis. They also collect as many scholarly and literary works as they can find regarding their area of expertise. When they return to Eumetis they add these to the massive library which is the heart of the Eumetian society. Many also write their own scholarly articles or journals which are also added to the library. It is the job of the guild's teachers to remain up to date with the knowledge brought from outside Eumetis and synthesize this information in to their teachings. This lust for higher learning and the continual development of intelligence breeds a constant friendly competition between all individuals in Eumetian society. They attempt to out-do one another at all times, but very rarely does this turn in to actual feuds between individuals or guilds.
Since Eumetis is the largest island in a relatively small chain of volcanic islands, they make use of the other islands to test their constantly developing intelligence. One of the medium sized islands is used entirely by the Guild of Aeronautics and Astrophysics (a rapidly growing guild) to build, test, and pilot their creations. Another smaller island is used by the Guild of Genetic Craftsmanship to breed livestock and plant life for maximum production. On this island there are fruit trees which are hundreds of years old and have the fruits of other trees spliced in to the branches. The famous 175 year old pomegranate tree which the Eumetian people call Perseperum produces apples, oranges, lemons, pears, plums, and cherries, in addition to massive quantities of pomegranates each season. A very small island is a chemist's amusement park where imported chemicals are combined in endless combinations to create new polymers built for strength and light weight. Even the volcano in which Vulcan Forge was made has been chiseled and sculpted to resemble a massive living flame when viewed from afar.
If anywhere in the world can be said to be a true paradise it is the island of Eumetis. Here is a society which exists peacefully and reasonably to makes advancing in all fields of learning so that everyone may benefit from the discoveries made. Any scholar's dream would be to be accepted in to Eumetian society and revered as an equal among these intellectual giants. If they had been instilled with the values of possessions and power they could likely develop weapons which would easily compensate for their small numbers, but they among the most peaceful and friendly of people. Throughout my long career I can honestly say that I have never felt the need to retire from field work until spending time among the Eumetians. This article should double as my resignation from the field of cultural anthropology as the world knows it, as I have chosen to gratefully accept the position of honorary teacher of anthropology in the recently developed Guild of the Endeavors of Humanity. I publish this last article to the so-called civilized world only so you know that there exists a society which defies all contemporary social models in the interests of intellectual freedom for the advancement of the human species.

Thursday, May 6, 2010

Terraforming Mars Through the Use of Greenhouse Gases

This was originally a formal analytical report which I wrote for a technical communications class. More research was put in to this report than in anything I have ever written, though my teacher seemed to think that my sources are not credible and that the whole idea was impossible and "science fiction." There were originally a few images withing the text, but I cannot figure out how to upload them to my satisfaction on this site. The captions for the images are still present within the text, so hopefully you can use the links in the captions to find the pictures.


INTRODUCTION
The idea of space exploration and colonization has captivated the human race ever since we could first imagine a place outside of Earth. When Neil Armstrong became the first person to step foot on the Moon in 1969, the whole world watched him say that now famous line: “That's one small step for man; one giant leap for mankind.” Now, with our home planet rapidly approaching its own carrying capacity* for human life, we must make what is possibly the biggest step in human history and become a multi-planet species.

Of course, we do not currently have the technology needed to sustain life for millions in either orbital satellites* or bases on other celestial* bodies. What we do already have, however, is the capability to take a powerful natural force and wield it to begin to make Mars a permanently habitable place for human life. This force is, of course, is the Greenhouse Effect (See Appendix A).

In recent years, scientists have noticed that an increase in our planet's surface temperature has lead to climate changes throughout the world. Some of the most drastic changes include: “Glaciers are melting, plants and animals are being forced from their habitat, and the number of severe storms is increasing.” (An Inconvenient Truth) Why is our planet suddenly undergoing these massive climate changes after millions of years of relative stability? Most scientists today believe that it is because of the rapid increase in our production of greenhouse gases* (An Inconvenient Truth). At this point, you may be asking yourself, “What does any of this have to do with living on Mars?” The answer to this question is simple: the very principles that make it dangerous for us to use CFCs* and burn fossil fuels (An Inconvenient Truth) here on Earth, are what will allow the human race to turn Mars from a dead frozen planet, into one capable of supporting life.

Since a project of this magnitude has never been completed in human history, any timetable given would, of course, be purely hypothetical. The number of possible variables is so staggering that it would be completely unethical for me to present an accurate time line for the completion of this project. Therefore, I have decided to comprehensively cover:

  • The specific greenhouse gases that should be used for maximum efficiency
  • All stages involved in raising the Martian surface temperature with greenhouse gases
  • How to release these gases into the Martian atmosphere*

Since I am obviously not a qualified expert in any of the fields involved in this project, the information I have compiled in this report comes from a wide array of astronomers, environmental scientists, geologists, astrobiologists*, chemists, and physicists.

COLLECTED DATA

Different Greenhouse Gases
The amount of greenhouse gases in any planet's atmosphere is one of the biggest factors in determining how much of heat will remain with that planet, and how much will be lost to space (Refer to Appendix A). We now know that carbon dioxide (CO2) is a powerful greenhouse gas, but there are also many others, both natural and man-made, which vary in their effectiveness.

Natural Greenhouse Gases
Many of the gases that are naturally in our atmosphere function as greenhouse gases. Possibly the most well-known of these is carbon dioxide.

CO2 Carbon dioxide is a gas which is found throughout our solar system and is possibly the gas that has had the biggest impact on the formation of life on Earth due to its large role in the Greenhouse Effect. Carbon dioxide is especially prevalent on Mars, composing about 95% of the Red Planet's atmosphere (Darling). Why then is Mars not a warm, inhabitable planet if its atmosphere is made up of mostly carbon dioxide? Scientists believe that Mars was once a place capable of supporting life, but somehow underwent a reverse Greenhouse Effect, cooling the planet enough to literally freeze a large amount of this carbon dioxide into dry ice (Darling). When the majority of the planets gaseous carbon dioxide became dry ice,* the atmosphere thinned significantly, reducing the effectiveness of the Greenhouse Effect. It is therefore believed, that an increase of as little as 4 degrees Celsius would be enough to evaporate much of this dry ice, allowing it to rejoin the Martian atmosphere and once again add to the Greenhouse Effect (Hurtak).

H2O Water vapor also works as a greenhouse gas. On Earth, it is estimated water vapor contributes to roughly 60% of our Greenhouse Effect, compared to only 20% by carbon dioxide. (Uherek) This is because the Earth is made up mostly of water. On planets with less water, water vapor plays much less of a part in the Greenhouse Effect. For instance, on Mars, though there is an abundance of water throughout the planet, most of it is permanently frozen as ice, and therefore very little of it exists in the atmosphere as water vapor (Mars, Water On). However, both Earth-based and Mars-orbiting telescopes have determined that water vapor exists in small amounts on Mars in the forms of clouds and fog (Mars, Water On). It is believed that once Mars is made warmer, much of the ice that exists all over the planet will melt into water, forming massive oceans, much like we have on Earth.

CH4 Methane is another important natural greenhouse gas both on Earth and Mars. While both water vapor and carbon dioxide are cycled constantly through the water and carbon cycles, methane remains in a planet's atmosphere for only about 9 to 15 years before being broken down by radiation from the Sun (EPA). However, methane is also more than 20 times more effective than carbon dioxide as a greenhouse gas over a hundred year period (EPA). On Earth, the majority of methane is produced through the decomposition of dead plants and animals. A significant increase in the amount of methane on our planet in recent years is linked to human activities such as coal mining, agricultural production, and landfills (EPA). Trace amounts of the Earth's total methane production comes from volcanic activity. While Mars does contain several volcanoes (including Olympos Mons, the largest volcano in our solar system) other gases, such as sulfur, which are discharged during volcanic activity are not found on Mars, leading to much debate over the Red Planet's recent methane production (BBC News).

Man-Made Greenhouse Gases
While our planet evolved to the comfortable temperature it is today through natural greenhouse gases, this process took millions, if not billions of years to occur naturally. It is completely unacceptable for humans to wait that long for the Greenhouse Effect to transform Mars into a habitable place for us. Since we are now just learning about the effects of releasing too many greenhouse gases into our own atmosphere, it has been theorized that the introduction of just a few of these man-made greenhouse gases could cause a runaway greenhouse effect on Mars, changing the whole planet's climate in a much shorter time period. Many of the man-made greenhouse gases whose use has been restricted on Earth because of environmental hazards will help drastically shorten the time-period involved in warming Mars through the Greenhouse Effect.

CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons are any gasses with a mixture of chlorine, fluorine, and carbon. Developed in the 1930s, CFCs have an incredible array of desirable traits. They are non-toxic, non-flammable, and non-reactive with other chemical compounds (CIESIN). Also, their stable thermodynamic principles allow them to be easily converted from gas to liquid, or liquid to gas, making them perfect for use as a coolant in refrigerators, air conditioners, and aerosol propellants (Hopwood). CFCs by themselves are not particularly powerful greenhouse gases. They do, however, add to the Greenhouse Effect by breaking down ozone* (O3) in the atmosphere. The Ozone Layer around the Earth helps filter excess radiation, specifically ultraviolet radiation (UV), from the Sun. When CFCs interact with radiation from the Sun, they rise into the upper atmosphere of the planet and react with the ozone, disintegrating the CFCs and converting the ozone into oxygen (O2), which does not filter ultraviolet radiation (Khemani). This adds to the Greenhouse Effect because more radiation from sunlight is then making it to the Earth's surface and being trapped by other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Because of this, CFCs can be used to raise a planet's temperature, but are not ideal.

HFC*s Hydrofluorcarbons are similar to chlorofluorocarbons in that they are composed of fluorine and carbon, but rather than having chlorine like CFCs, HFCs have hydrogen. Used in refrigerators and air conditioners, HFCs have many of the same properties as CFCs and so are often used as a substitute. The main difference between HFCs and CFCs is that HFCs do not react with ozone (Hopwood). They are, however, more powerful as greenhouse gases than CFCs, and because of this, they are regulated almost as strictly as CFCs themselves. While this may be a problem here on planet Earth, HFCs are ideal for use in increasing the Greenhouse Effect on Mars because they do not deplete ozone, and are anywhere from 4,000 to 10,000 times as effective as carbon dioxide as a greenhouse gas (Greenhouse Gases: Some Definitions).

PFC*s Perfluorcarbons are incredibly potent greenhouse gases that are mostly produced as byproducts of aluminum smelting (Greenhouse Gases: Some Definitions). PFCs are composed solely of different combinations of fluorine and carbon, both of which are key components of the majority of potent greenhouse gases. While they have many of the same properties and uses as CFCs and HFCs, they are more expensive to produce, and as a result are not used as commercially. One specific PFC, perfluoropropane (C3F8), is currently regarded by astrobiologists as one of the ideal greenhouse gases to be used on Mars (Young). It has a lifespan of 2,600 years, does not react with ozone, and is 7,000 times more effective as a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide (Perflurocarbons [PFCs]).


Methods of Releasing Greenhouse Gases Into Martian Atmosphere
There are many proposed methods of releasing greenhouse gases into Mars' atmosphere. Each method would potentially release different types of greenhouse gases, and therefore a combination of all would likely be the most effective and produce the greatest results.

Drilling to Release Water Vapor Many astronomers today believe that while liquid water no longer exists on the surface of Mars, it may remain under the surface where high pressure and proximity to the planet's core may have kept it from freezing (See Figure 1) (David).


Figure 1 Cross Section of Martian Surface
Source: “The Quest to Terraform Mars.” by: D.M. Hurtak, M.S.Sc. The Academy for Future Science. Retrieved November 22, 2009 from http://www.affs.org/html/the_quest_to_terraform_mars.html

When these pockets of liquid water are drilled into, the high pressure will cause the hot water to shoot to the planet's surface, hopefully evaporating some of Mars' frozen carbon dioxide on the way. Even if no other frozen greenhouse gases are released back into the atmosphere, water vapor will certainly be released from this process, (Hurtak) and the liquid water which will pool on Mars' surface will be constantly recycled throughout the planet due to the Water Cycle. If there are not sufficient amount of liquid water under Mars' frozen surface, drilling could also encounter pockets of trapped greenhouse gases that could be released into the atmosphere (Hurtak).

Orbital Mirrors One method of releasing greenhouse gases into Mars' atmosphere is to warm the Red Planet's south pole in order to melt the dry ice polar caps that have formed. Doing so will release a large amount of carbon dioxide gas into Mars' atmosphere, thickening it by a significant amount. One way of melting this ice cap is to build mirrors which would orbit around mars and redirect sunlight at the Martian south pole. The problems with this plan, of course, are size, cost, and material limitations due to the enormous size the mirrors would have to be in order to be effective. It is estimated that a mirror with a radius of 125 kilometers would be sufficient to melt the area below the latitude of 70 degrees south, but that such a mirror, if made out of a light-weight aluminum-mylar material, would weigh close to 200,000 tons (Zubrin). Such a monstrosity would have to be made in space, as it would weigh far too much to launch from Earth. If the mirrors could be made from ores mined and refined on Mars, their transportation would be a far simpler issue.

Asteroid* Impact The alternative plan for quickly melting Mars' south pole ice cap would be to capture an asteroid and impact the south pole with it. The friction from such an impact would certainly melt the ice cap, but may provide difficulties with the resulting clouds of dust that could develop following the massive impact. The asteroid would most likely have to be captured from the outer solar system, rather than from the nearby asteroid belt, because it would require less force to move an object in the outer solar system since it is farther away from the sun and therefore less affected by its gravity (See Figure 2) (Zubrin)


Figure 2 Velocity Change Required to Transport Asteroids to Mars
Source: “Technological Requirements for Terraforming Mars.” by: Robert M. Zubrin and Christopher P. McKay. Retrieved November 22, 2009 from http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~mfogg/zubrin.htm

To make this plan truly effective, an asteroid made largely of ammonia is required as ammonia is a strong greenhouse gas. When the asteroid impacts the southern pole, not only does the frozen carbon dioxide and water melt, but the ammonia from the asteroid also becomes a part of the atmosphere, aiding in the Greenhouse Effect. It is estimated that a single asteroid consisting of 10 billion tons of ammonia would be enough to melt 1 trillion tons of water, raise the entire planet's temperature by 3 degrees Celsius, and additionally, form an ammonia shield that would protect the planet from UV radiation (Zubrin). Since the average lifespan of ammonia is slightly less than a hundred years, more asteroids would need to be imported to Mars in order for this plan to work by itself. This is certainly the fastest method devised for bringing Mars' surface temperature to a habitable level, but it also involves the most amount of risk since each 10 billion ton asteroid would impact the Martian surface with the amount of force of 70,000 megaton hydrogen bombs; (Zubrin) making it almost impossible for there to be any kind of habitation while the process of impacting Mars with asteroids is still going on.

Martian Industrialization A far safer method of releasing greenhouse gases into Mars' atmosphere would be to set up factories that actually create the greenhouse gases on Mars. The main purpose of these factories would be to produce a mixture of CFCs, HFCs, and PFCs which are then released into the atmosphere where they will add to the Greenhouse Effect. This is a more reasonable approach to introducing man-made greenhouse gases to Mars than simply developing them on Earth and transporting them to Mars for several reasons. First, a very large quantity of these gases will be needed in order to quickly produce a noticeable temperature difference and the transportation of such large quantities is unrealistic due to costs and the amount of travel time involved. Second, Establishing factories on Mars before it is ready for human habitation allows us to begin readying the planet for our future occupation. This means there will be minimal time wasted in setting up our habitats once Mars is ready to support life. There are a few different options to consider while determining how best to power these factories since there are no fossil fuels, and there will be limited other resources available for our use on Mars. One possibility it to create nuclear power plants on Mars which will run these factories, and can eventually be used to power other devices. The drawback to this, however, is that thousands of workers are currently needed to run a single nuclear power plant, (Zubrin) and therefore, temporary human habitats would need to be set up, either in orbit or on the surface. Another way of powering the factories is with a combination of solar and wind power. Since we are just now beginning to understand how to effectively tame reusable energy sources, it may be a good idea to invest in as many reusable sources of energy as possible for use on Mars. The downfalls of this idea are the high costs and low amounts of energy generated compared to nuclear reactors.

Methane Producing Organisms Once Mars has been changed enough to support life for even the most basic life forms, primitive bacteria can be imported from Earth in order to organically produce a variety of greenhouse gases including carbon, methane, and ammonia. The recent discovery of methane on Mars suggests that some form of methanogens* may already exist and be producing methane from deep below the Martian surface (Darling). Methanogens are anaerobic*, meaning they can live without oxygen, but being fairly strict anaerobes, they do not survive for very long in environments rich in oxygen. On Earth, they are found living and thriving in some of the most extreme environments, including volcanic hot springs, oceanic volcanic vents, swamps and marshes, and even the stomachs and intestines of humans, cows, and termites (Meeres). Being some of the oldest organisms on Earth, methanogens have adapted to these extreme environments and the many different species of methanogens can be classified based on their environmental preferences. There are: thermophilic*, psychrophilic*, halophilic*, acidophilic*, alkaliphilic*, and hyperthermophilic* (Meeres). The ability of methanogens to live in extreme conditions makes them ideal candidates for introduction to Mars while it is still incapable of supporting more complex life.


Stages of Terraforming Process
While there are a multitude of different plans for terraforming Mars with greenhouse gases, it will be a long and difficult process, possibly taking centuries before humans can live unaided on Mars. The Red Planet will change drastically as the different plans are put into effect, and each major change will allow humans to utilize a different method to make the planet habitable.

Current Stage Mars is uninhabitable right now for several different reasons. The atmosphere is about one percent as dense as Earth's, resulting in a surface pressure which is less than one percent of that on Earth (Darling). This thin atmosphere, although made up almost entirely of carbon dioxide, does not effectively use the Greenhouse Effect, trapping only about 5ºC (Darling). The average Martian temperature is -55ºC, but because of Mars' very elliptical orbit, the temperature changes drastically from -133ºC to 27ºC (Darling). Both the north and south Martian poles contain water ice and dry ice, the amounts of which change depending on the season (Darling). It is estimated that a 4ºC raise in Mars' atmosphere would begin a process that would eventually lead to the 55ºC change required for liquid water to exist (Hurtak).

Orbital Mirror and Asteroid Impact Stage The first step to terraforming Mars is to raise the temperature and thicken the atmosphere so that both are similar to the atmosphere of Earth. Any change in the temperature or the density of the Martian atmosphere will cause the other to change as the two factors strongly affect one another because of the Greenhouse Effect. Of the plans covered in this report, the Asteroid Impact and the Orbital Mirror plans are the two most effective and drastic plans. They should therefore, be the first methods used. Construction of a massive mirror should be started within Earth's orbit while an asteroid composed of mostly ammonia is located. The mirror would have to built in space rather than on Earth because it would be too massive to reach the escape velocity required to be free of Earth's gravity. (Zubrin). It would take a great deal of time to find a single asteroid of the proper size (roughly 5 billion tons) and composition in the outer reaches of our solar system, and even more time to capture and redirect one. While an asteroid near to the orbits of Uranus or Neptune would be much easier to move due to their distance from the sun, they would also take longer to arrive at Mars, in some cases up to 50 years (Zubrin). This long period of preparation time would allow for the construction and positioning of the orbital mirror, which would be working to evaporate the water and carbon dioxide ice at Mars' poles, thickening the atmosphere with these two greenhouse gases. As the asteroid impact is a chaotic and potentially dangerous method, the next stages of the terraforming process cannot be launched until after the impact, by which time Mars will already have undergone drastic changes.

Industrialization Stage The impact from an asteroid composed of about 5 billion tons of ammonia is estimated to be enough to melt half a trillion tons of water and raise Mars' surface temperature by 1.5ºC (Zubrin). This plus the amount of carbon dioxide and water evaporated by the orbital mirror will have increased the density of the atmosphere, increasing the surface pressure and the amount of heat trapped in Mars' atmosphere through the Greenhouse Effect. Immediately after the asteroid impact is the ideal time to start the Industrialization plan because the amount of ammonia in the atmosphere from the impact will block UV rays for a little less than a century (Zubrin). Any humans on the planet would still have to wear space suits to combat the low pressure, temperature, and lack of oxygen, but they would not have to worry about being exposed to excess radiation from the sun. When humans arrive on Mars for this step of the process, they should immediately begin assembling the power sources that will be used. With the recent advancements being made in the field of reusable energy, wind or solar power will likely be the main sources of energy on Mars. If this technology has not advanced to the level where it would adequately meet the requirement for use on Mars, then nuclear reactors would have to be built. Reusable energy sources are more desirable than nuclear reactors because they require less maintenance, cutting down on the amount of people required to live on Mars before it inhabitable and the costs involved in transporting, compensating, and providing livable conditions for these workers. Once power sources have been established on Mars, factories whose main purpose would be to release CFCs, HFCs, and PFCs into the atmosphere should be set up. With enough of these factories steadily producing these powerful greenhouse gases, Mars could be transformed into a warm and wet planet in less than a century (Zubrin). When combined with the other methods of releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, fewer factories producing lower amounts of CFCs, HFCs, and PFCs would be needed. Since fewer greenhouse gas producing factories would be needed, some factories could be setup to manufacture drilling equipment in preparation for the next stage. This Industrialization Stage would require a great deal of planning, including massive amounts of training in order to prepare non-astronauts for the harsh conditions of space, and would quite possibly be the most expensive stage overall.

Drilling Stage With the introduction of the greenhouse producing factories on Mars, there would not be a noticeable change in either Mars' surface temperature or its atmospheric pressure. Unlike the first stage, which requires lots of preparation time but has immediate results, both the Industrialization and the Drilling stages need to be in effect for decades before Mars will undergo a noticeable change. Since a large amount of time will be needed for the Industrialization Stage, the Drilling Stage should be put in to effect immediately after the completion of the factories. There are two major benefits of this stage following the establishing of the factories. The first is that this will give the workers who assembled the factories something to do rather than simply being sent back to Earth. The second is that liquid water is believed to exist about 800 meters under Mars' frozen surface (Hurtak); if liquid water is found, it will not only release water vapor into the atmosphere, but also provide a source of fresh water for those living on Mars to use. The drilling equipment would have to either be flown assembled from Earth, or in parts to be assembled in factories upon reaching Mars. Many of the workers who were involved in setting up the factories could be taught to use the drilling equipment under the supervision of astronomers and geologists who determine where to drill in order to release the most greenhouse gases. The Drilling Stage is the least effective stage of the entire terraforming process, but it is also the cheapest and has the added benefit of possibly providing water and mapping out wells for future habitation on Mars.

Appendices

Appendix A: Process Description of The Greenhouse Effect

The Greenhouse Effect is the process by which light and energy from the Sun reaches the Earth (or another celestial body with an atmosphere), is converted to heat, and is then unable to freely leave the planet's atmosphere. This process is absolutely necessary for a planet to retain heat and therefore support life. The audience this process description is intended for is comprised of people who are skeptical or unaware of the plausibility of using greenhouse gasses to heat Mars to an inhabitable temperature.
This process description is not intended for use by the main audience of my formal analytical report (NASA), because it is a very basic process. Instead, this explanation of the Greenhouse Effect is meant to be used by my secondary audience.
To fully understand this process, one must have a general understanding of how the Earth's surface absorbs radiation from the Sun, which is then radiated back into space from the Earth's surface. Thanks to greenhouse gasses in the upper atmosphere, some of this heat that would be lost to space is trapped in the lower atmosphere, keeping our planet at a liveable temperature. One must also understand what, specifically greenhouse gasses are and the role they play in the Greenhouse Effect. A greenhouse gas is any atmospheric gas that reflects infrared radiation given off by the Earth as a result of being heated by the Sun. These include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, water vapor, ozone, and CFCs.
This process occurs all day everyday on Earth, but on planets like Mars, which has a thin atmosphere, lacking the thick covering of greenhouse gasses that Earth has, there is no Greenhouse Effect. This is why the presence of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere is crucial for a planet to retain its heat. Some planets, such as Venus, have thick atmospheres full of greenhouse gasses. Some, like Mars, have very thin atmospheres whose greenhouse gasses trap very little heat. Earth is a comfortable middle ground between Venus, which is far too hot to be habitable, and Mars, which is far too cold. Whatever the levels of greenhouse gasses in a planet's atmosphere, the planet must also be close enough to a star so that it receives appropriate radiation.

Stages In The Process:
Once a planet is close enough to a star and has an adequate level of greenhouse gasses, some of the star's emitted radiation will pass through the planet's atmosphere while some is reflected back in to space by the atmosphere. In order for this step to take place, the planet's atmosphere must not be too reflective, or not enough radiation will pass though it.
The radiation that is not reflected into space by the atmosphere will mostly be absorbed by the planet's surface, (some is reflected by the planet's surface) warming it temporarily. The planet then gives off its own infrared radiation, or heat.
The infrared radiation generated by the planet is then lost to space, unless there are greenhouse gasses present. In this case, the greenhouse gasses act as insulation for the planet, reflecting heat back towards the planet and keeping it warm. The amount of greenhouse gasses present in the atmosphere determines the amount of heat that is lost to space and the amount that is re-radiated in the planet's direction.

Glossary

Acidophilic: Classification of methanogens that live in environments with high acid concentrations (pH less than 4).

Alkaliphilic: Classification of methanogens that live in environments with high base concentrations (pH higher than 8).

Anaerobic: Able to live without oxygen in the air. Applies to cells and bacteria. Strict anaerobes cannot live in the presence of oxygen.

Asteroid: Any celestial body ranging from a mile to 480 miles in diameter.

Astrobiologist: Someone who studies life beyond the Earth's atmosphere.

Atmosphere: The gaseous envelope which surrounds any given celestial body.

Carrying Capacity: The maximum number of organisms of a particular species that can be supported in a given environment.

Celestial: Of or pertaining to the sky and space.

CFC: Any of various halocarbon compounds consisting of carbon, hydrogen, chlorine, and fluorine.

Dry Ice: Carbon dioxide in its solid form.

Greenhouse Effect: See Appendix A

Greenhouse Gas: Any gas which adds to the Greenhouse Effect.

Halophilic: Classification of methanogens that lives in environments with high salt (NaCl) concentrations.

HFC: Any of various halocarbon compounds consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and fluorine, but which do not contain chlorine.

Hyperthermophilic: Classification of methanogens that lives in extremely high temperatures, typically about 176-235ºF.

Lunar: Of or pertaining to a moon as opposed to other celestial bodies.

Methanogens: Methane producing bacteria.

Ozone: An unstable, poisonous molecule composed of three oxygen atoms which absorbs ultraviolet radiation.

PFC: Any of various compounds which are made entirely out of carbon and fluorine.

Psychrophilic: Classification of methanogens that lives in cold temperatures typically about 28-60ºF.

Runaway Greenhouse Effect: The result of an unbalanced Greenhouse Effect in which there are too many greenhouse gases.

Satellite: Any body that orbits a planet. May be natural, ie. the moon, or man-made, ie. a space station.

Terraform: The act of making any celestial body that is not the Earth inhabitable by humans or more Earth-like.

Terrestrial: Of or pertaining to the Earth as opposed to any other celestial body.

Thermophilic: Classification of methanogens that live in high temperatures typically about 131-176ºF.

Works Cited

Bortman, Henry. “Thawing Mars.” NASA Astrobiology Institue. 22 January 2001. 7 November 2009. http://nai.nasa.gov/news_stories/news_detail.cfm?ID=212

CIESIN Thematic Guides. “Chlorofluorocarbons and Ozone Depletion.” CIESIN. 19 November 2009. http://www.ciesin.org/TG/OZ/cfcozn.html

Darling, David. The Internet Encyclopedia of Science. http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia

David, Leonard. “Here's the Drill: Mars's Greatest Treasures May Lie Beneath Its Barren, Icy Surface.” Space.com. 17 January 2002. 22 November 2009. http://www.space.com/businesstechnology/technology/drill_mars_020117.html

EPA. The United States Environmental Protection Agency. 19 November 2009. http://www.epa.gov

Gerstell, M.F., Fransisco, J.S., Yung, Y.L., Boxe, C. and Aaltonee, E.T. “Keeping Mars Warm With New Super Greenhouse Gases.” PNAS.org. 11 January 2001. 30 October 2009. http://www.pnas.org/content/98/5/2154.full

“Greenhouse Gases: Some Definitions.” GDRC. 19 November 2009. http://www.gdrc.org/uem/waste/waste-gases.html

Hopwood, Nick and Cohen, Jordan. “Greenhouse Gases and Society.” 19 November 2009. http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/greenhouse.htm

Hurtak, D.M. M.S.Sc. “The Quest to Terraform Mars.” The Academy For Future Science. 10 Novmeber 2009. http://www.affs.org/html/the_quest_to_terraform_mars.html

Inconvenient Truth, An. November 19 2009. http://www.climatecrisis.net/

Khemani, Haresh. “Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): Refrigerants That Cause Ozone Layer Depletion.” Bright Hub. 29 June 2009. 19 November 2009. http://www.brighthub.com/engineering/mechanical/articles/965.aspx

“Mars, Water On.” Water Encyclopedia. 19 November 2009. http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/La-Mi/Mars-Water-on.html

Meeres, Andrew. “Archaeans – Methanogens in Extreme Environments.” Suite101.com http://microbiology.suite101.com/article.cfm/methanogens

“New Light On Mars Methane Mystery.” BBCNews. 15 January 2009. 19 November 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7829315.stm

“Perfluorocarbons (PFCs).” Fluorocarbons and Sulfur Hexafluoride. 19 November 2009. http://www.fluorocarbons.org/en/info/brochures/fact_10.html

Philips, Tony Dr. “Terraforming Mars.” FirstScience.com. 6 January 2001. 9 November 2009. http://www.firstscience.com/site/articles/terraform.asp

“Terraforming Mars.” MarsNews.com. 30 October 2009. http://www.marsnews.com/focus/terraforming

Uherek, Elmar. “Water Vapor – A Greenhouse Gas.” 19 November 2009. http://www.espere.net/Unitedkingdom/water/uk_watervapour.html

Young, Kelly. “Greenhouse Gases Could Breather Life Into Mars.” NewScientist.com. 4 February 2005. http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn6973

Zubrin, Robert M. and McKay, Christopher P. "Technological Requirements for Terraforming Mars." 22 November 2009. http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~mfogg/zubrin.htm

Communication and Gender in America

Communication and society constantly change each other, shaping both the words and grammar of the language used to communicate, and the cultural values of the society. Since the majority of societies have different roles for men and women, it is no wonder that they would use their shared language to communicate differently within their societies. It is not fair to judge if any particular style of communication works better than any other, but these differences can shape our perceptions of each other and often even muddle communication between genders. The individuals which make up American society pride themselves on their liberty, independence, and rational equality for all citizens, but at the same time, almost everyone knows that men and women communicate differently. Few people ever bother to think about how each gender communicates, (beyond the obvious stereotypes) or how our society has developed two very distinct styles of conversation. According to linguist Deborah Tannen, the differences are not in what each gender says, but how they say it. Noticeable differences exist at all ages in body language, ways of reassuring one another, willingness to remain on a single topic, and content discussed between males and females in American society. These differences in conversational style can be summed up with the statement: “Men use 'agnostic' or warlike, oppositional formats to do almost anything; thus discussion becomes debate, and conversation a competitive sport. In contrast, women see conversation as a ritual means of establishing rapport.” (Tannen 35) Each gender communicates in a way that directly reflects the expectations placed upon them by society.
The reason men seem to communicate with each other in a competitive manner is because males in America are socialized to see everything in hierarchical terms. From an early age, males in American society are taught that they must compete with each other in order to define their own status in society. On the other hand, women have intrinsic social status because they can give birth to and nurture children, a vital role in all societies. Because of this, women can add to or detract from their intrinsic social status through doing and achieving, or can remain at a “neutral” social status through simply being a part of society. Unfortunately, many women in modern American society choose not to risk their inherent status, and so they are perceived by men as timid, or as simply not having anything interesting to say in a public forum. Thus, men tend to dominate the majority of talking time in public and formal settings.
The counter-balance to this phenomenon is that women dominate the talking time in private settings while men tend to remain quiet. Since men view public conversation as a form of competition, when in a private setting they can relax, no longer feeling obligated to prove themselves. Women see private conversation as a setting in which they can speak their minds without worry about being judged for what they say. This type of talk is not about social status, but instead revolves around building interpersonal relationships, showing that those involved in the conversation are of equal standing rather than hierarchical. Women in private conversations often exchange personal information or experiences as a way of reassuring doubts or comforting others.
Men, even in private conversations, tend to show a competitive edge, reassuring others through introducing bigger problems or simply discrediting the original doubt. When men and women converse with each other, women often find this belittling or demeaning when it is meant as a gesture of compassion. For whatever reason, men also tend to avoid eye contact with each other while engaged in these personal conversations. Women, who frequently make eye contact and “more listener-noise, such as 'mhm,' uhun,' and 'yeah,'” (Tannen 35) can find see this as a sign that the men are not paying attention when in fact, they are. Another area in which the genders clash is “topical alignment.” In examining communication differences between genders at an early age, Tannen found that “The girls in my study tended to talk at length about one topic, but the boys tended to jump from topic totopic,” (Tannen 34). Many women view this too as a sign that the man they are conversing with is not really interested in what she is saying. Similarly, many men can find the agreement and support offered by women in conversation irritating, as they often times prefer the conflict and opposing viewpoints that a male conversational partner would typically offer.
English professor and pioneer in the newly developed field of men's studies, Eugene August, claims that the reason men tend to be so competitive and hierarchical is because they are actually more narrowly socialized towards particular ends than women. Throughout the American male's life, August says, “If he deviates from society's gender role norm, he will be penalized and he will hear about it,” (August 26). Chief among the penalties for this deviation is the questioning of the man's masculinity. Throughout his informational essay on American gender differences, August gives many examples of words whose only function is to describe males who act femininely. Since men in American societies consider this to be a severe psychological attack, it is no wonder that they differ greatly in conversation habits from women. This is not, of course, to say that the qualities Americans value in women are intrinsically bad, but that they are seen as undesirable in males.
In American society, females are also socialized throughout their lives, but in different manners than are males. As mentioned by August, and many sociologists before him, “it is usually acceptable for girls to be tomboys,” (August 23) or, act like boys their age, but it is not so for boys who act girlishly. Yet while females are freer to deviate from their gender norms, they can only differ so much before society starts to disapprove. The ultimate example of this is the depiction of the Amazon women in Greek mythology, who would remove one of their breasts in order to perform better in combat, and displayed many of the qualities the Greeks admired in their own male warriors. The Greeks tended to view the Amazon women as either gender neutral or as men, in essence saying that in order for it to be acceptable for women to act as men do, “they had to trade in part of their femininity,” (Nilsen 10). Thus females were, and still are, taught that they cannot have all the qualities admired in each gender, but instead must pick one.
In the past few decades, American society has rapidly become more tolerant of gender role deviations in both sexes. Women can now be seen as successful, while men can possess strong social skills. Despite this rise in tolerance, “traditional” gender roles are still strongly reinforced through literature and other forms of media. In his 1996 article, “Sex Differences,” Ronald Macaulay offers two lists of 12 verbs used by each gender to introduce speech in novels. “The surprising part is that the two lists are totally distinct. No doubt the novelists intended to be realistic in describing two very different styles of speech but, in doing so, they also reinforce the stereotypes of men and women,” (273). All the verbs used by the males implied dominance or conflict, while those used by females implied obedience or ineptitude. Unfortunately, short of rewriting classic works so as not to reinforce gender stereotypes there is nothing that can be done about this particular form of socialization.
It is interesting to see where gender role tolerance will take American society and how it will change the ways in which we communicate with each other. Already, battles are being fought by linguists over gender neutrality and gender biases within the English language. Some take the position that in a society which can tolerate gender role deviation, all literature and language should be gender neutral to prevent stereotyping. Still others feel that no matter how carefully language and literature are regulated to maintain gender neutrality, some form of bias will still appear. My own opinion on gender regulation within language is that it serves as a bureaucratic false image of tolerance while it in fact breeds conformity to the regulations rather than the actual ideas they are meant to represent. Either way, the battle of the sexes within American society and the English language is far from over, and will likely be an issue that both linguists and sociologists will examine for decades to come.

Works Cited
August, Eugene R. “Real Men Don't: Anti-Male Bias in English.” Encountering Cultures: Second Edition. Ed. Richard Holeton, Balir Press, 1995. 20-31. Print.
Macaulay, Ronald. “Sex Differences.” Exploring Language 12th Edition. Ed. Gary Goshgarion, Longman Press, 2010. 270-275. Print.
Nilsen, Alleen Pace. “Sexism in English: A 1990's Update.” Encountering Cultures: Second Edition. Ed. Richard Holeton, Blair Press, 1995. 10-19. Print.
Tannen, Deborah. “'I'll Explain It to You': Lecturing and Listening.” Exploring Language 12th Edition. Ed. Gary Goshgarion, Longman Press, 2010. 281-293. Print.
Tannen, Deborah. “Sex, Lies, and Conversation: Why Is It So Hard for Men and Women to Talk to Each Other?” Encountering Cultures: Second Edition. Ed. Richard Holeton, Blair Press, 1995. 32-37. Print.

Tuesday, May 4, 2010

Merrily

Sleeping by a river's bank
I slip into a dream.
In my mind the rapid river
Becomes a gentle stream.

The tide of dreams will ebb and flow
Forever bringing more.
The sand from which my castle's built,
The wind on which I soar.
Each wave brings with it, crashing down,
a dream upon the shore.

And so, my rest replenishing,
I drown myself to reach the gleam,
Resplendent through the murky depths
At the bottom of the stream.
Death would be not painful,
If life were but a dream.